• London-based scholar and best-selling author Ian Hudson shares his views and researches on the Chinese explorer’s discoveries in the early 15th Century. Hudson specialises in ancient seafaring civilisations and global maritime exploration.
• Hudson began collaborating with historian Gavin Menzies in 2002, contributing to various projects such as book publications, 1421 and 1434; the “1421” exhibition in Singapore, and a television documentary series.
• There were compelling evidence of Zheng He’s arrival in America such as the Pizzigano map of 1424, and the Chinese DNA and artefacts.
  
  

By Sebastian Lim

FOR CENTURIES, the story of Christopher Columbus discovering America in 1492 has been ingrained in popular history. However, research by Gavin Menzies and Ian Hudson suggests that the Chinese, under Admiral Zheng He, may have reached the Americas decades before Columbus. This theory challenges conventional historical narratives and raises fascinating questions about pre-Columbian global exploration.
Voyage of Zheng He
Gavin Menzies’ book, 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, argues that a massive Chinese fleet set sail in 1421 under Emperor Zhu Di’s orders. Led by Zheng He, a trusted eunuch admiral, this fleet was the largest of its time, with ships up to 400 feet long — far larger than the vessels used by European explorers in later centuries.
The fleet’s mission was to explore, establish trade relations, and bring foreign nations into China’s tribute system. However, upon their return, they found that China had undergone a political shift. The new emperor had abandoned maritime exploration, and much of the historical record of Zheng He’s expeditions was erased. This left behind tantalising clues but no official recognition of the great voyages.
According to Menzies and Hudson, Zheng He’s fleet travelled far beyond Africa, possibly reaching the Americas in the early 1420s — more than 70 years before Columbus.
Evidence for a Chinese discovery of America
One of the most compelling pieces of evidence supporting this theory is the collection of maps including the Pizzigano map of 1424, which depicts Caribbean islands long before Columbus’ famous voyage. How could a Venetian cartographer have mapped these islands unless someone had already explored them? Other maps, such as the Fra Mauro map of 1459, contain details of places that had supposedly not been discovered by Europeans at that time.
“I find it hugely compelling that the whole world was charted with great accuracy before many of the European voyages of ‘discovery’ had taken place,” says Hudson. “How do you discover a place for which you already have a map? How could Columbus, Magellan and others be lauded as the discoverers of these far-flung lands if they had admitted to seeing them on maps in their possession? And who could have drawn those maps? Those are the questions that we are trying to answer!”

Beyond maps, there is physical and cultural evidence suggesting pre-Columbian contact between China and the Americas. One of them is the Chinese DNA in Native American populations.
Genetic studies have shown significant “recent” East Asian ancestry in some indigenous groups in the Americas, suggesting migration or contact via the Pacific rather than only the Bering land bridge.
Next are the Chinese artefacts found in the Americas, such as the Ming-era ceramics and metal objects that have been discovered in locations such as California and Peru. One particularly intriguing find is the Baby Buddha artifact in Australia, which some researchers believe was left behind by a shipwrecked Chinese expedition.
There is also the botanical evidence where crops like Asiatic rice, coconuts, and sugarcane were found in the Americas before European colonisation, suggesting early transoceanic exchange.
Shipwrecks, for Hudson, are another smoking gun — the “Holy Grail for 1421”! He adds: “If we can locate a Chinese shipwreck in the New World and date it to pre-Columbian times then we have proved the theory. The problem to date has been cost — salvage of wrecks is prohibitively expensive, so we must wait until either funds are raised, or we find a wreck that isn’t buried deep under vast masses of sand, silt or water! There are plenty of them out there!”
Meanwhile, accounts from early Spanish explorers from conquistadors such as Francisco Vázquez de Coronado describe encounters with indigenous people who bore striking similarities to Asian cultures. Some even recorded sightings of large ships on the west coast of North America, possibly belonging to Chinese merchants.
According to Hudson, “You are clearly able to read, to this day, accounts of the conquistadores who arrived in the Americas to find proof that Chinese explorers had been there before them.
“They described seeing wrecks of Chinese junks on the shores, and were taught by the native peoples that visitors from China had crossed the Pacific and traded with them in the past.”
Hudson’s role in Menzies’ research
Ian Hudson played a crucial role in developing the 1421 theory. After earning a degree in Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin American studies from the University of Bristol, he joined Menzies’ research team. His linguistic skills were invaluable in analysing those early Spanish and Portuguese texts, which contained references to pre-Columbian exploration.
Hudson contributed to multiple projects, including setting up the 1421 team of researchers, and the website www.gavinmenzies.net where researchers and history enthusiasts could share findings and discuss evidence. He also helped organise exhibitions, talks, and documentary collaborations to expand the reach of the 1421 hypothesis. He then set up the 1421 Foundation, a US-based non-profit research entity, with a view to testing and developing the hypothesis with scientific rigour.
As new information emerged, Menzies and Hudson published further books, including Who Discovered America?, which explored the idea that global exploration occurred thousands of years before Zheng He’s expedition. They questioned the widely accepted Bering Strait migration theory, arguing that ancient mariners had likely used ocean currents for long-distance travel.
“Our most recent book was written in the light of research which recognises that man has been using Mother Nature’s abundant provision of wind and water for much longer than we have given him credit for, using the world's oceans as transport corridors for thousands of years,” Hudson adds. “The currents in the North Pacific flow in a great loop carrying boats north from China, past Japan then swinging east past the Aleutian and Kurile islands to Alaska, and then south along the American coast to Central America.
“The more we think about the Beringia theory of populating the Americas, the more ridiculous it becomes. Our conclusion was that only armchair academics could believe in the Bering Straits theory of migration. It is another story to boost the myth that trans-oceanic journeys were impossible before Columbus.”
Rewriting history
If Zheng He’s fleet did reach the Americas, why is this not common knowledge? The answer lies partly in Eurocentric historical narratives. For centuries, Western historians have emphasised European achievements while overlooking non-European contributions to exploration and cartography. Additionally, China’s decision to withdraw from international affairs in the mid-15th century meant that much of its maritime history was lost or deliberately erased.
The 1421 hypothesis remains controversial, with some scholars questioning its claims due to the lack of concrete archaeological proof. However, discoveries such as ancient shipwrecks in the Americas and DNA evidence continue to fuel interest in the topic.
Gavin Menzies and Ian Hudson’s work has encouraged a re-evaluation of how history is written. It reminds us that history is not static but an ever-evolving field where new evidence can challenge long-held beliefs. Whether or not Zheng He’s fleet truly reached America, the idea that ancient civilisations were more interconnected than previously thought is a fascinating possibility.
In the end, the story of human exploration is far more complex than simple narratives of European discovery. If nothing else, the 1421 theory serves as an invitation to look beyond traditional history books and consider a world where the Chinese, and perhaps many other civilisations, explored the world long before Columbus.

View the original article here.

Yu Heng Wang Research and Innovation Center of Xia Culture of Eagle and Snake
​Guang Bao Liu Eagle and Serpent Xia Dynasty Cultural Research & Innovation InstituteDate Written: March 18, 2022
AbstractChinese Abstract:
民间收藏的一对明代成化年制的瓷杯上，出现有南瓜釉彩花纹，经仪器鉴定是1466年，即成化二年制造。这为加文·孟席斯关于郑和船队发现美洲的理论提供了又一强有力的证据支持。

English Abstract:
A pair of porcelain cups made during the reign of Cheng Hua Emperor in the Ming Dynasty in the folk collection have pumpkin glaze patterns on them, which were identified by the instrument as being made in 1466, that is, in the Second year of Cheng Hua. This provides another strong evidence support for Gavin Menzies' theory that Zheng He's fleet discovered America.

Please click here to view the research paper.

by Timothy James Dimacali, Ateneo de Manila University

The ancient peoples of the Philippines and of Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) may have built sophisticated boats and mastered seafaring tens of thousands of years ago—millennia before Magellan, Zheng He, and even the Polynesians.
In a paper in the Journal of Archaeological Science, Ateneo de Manila University researchers Riczar Fuentes and Alfred Pawlik challenge the widely-held contention that technological progress during the Paleolithic only emerged in Europe and Africa.
They point out that much of ISEA was never connected to mainland Asia, neither by land bridges nor by ice sheets, yet it has yielded evidence of early human habitation. Exactly how these peoples achieved such daring ocean crossings is an enduring mystery, as organic materials like wood and fiber used for boats rarely survive in the archaeological record.
But archaeological sites in the Philippines, Indonesia, and Timor-Leste are now providing strong evidence that ancient seafarers had a technological sophistication comparable to much later civilizations.
Microscopic analysis of stone tools excavated at these sites, dating as far back as some 40,000 years ago, showed clear traces of plant processing—particularly the extraction of fibers necessary for making ropes, nets, and bindings essential for boatbuilding and open-sea fishing.
Archaeological sites in Mindoro and Timor-Leste also yielded the remains of deep ocean fish such as tuna and sharks as well as fishing implements such as fishing hooks, gorges, and net weights.
"The remains of large predatory pelagic fish in these sites indicate the capacity for advanced seafaring and knowledge of the seasonality and migration routes of those fish species," the researchers said in their paper. Meanwhile, the discovery of fishing implements "indicates the need for strong and well-crafted cordage for ropes and fishing lines to catch the marine fauna."
This body of evidence points to the likelihood that these ancient seafarers built sophisticated boats out of organic composite materials held together with plant-based ropes and also used the same rope technology for open-sea fishing.
If so, then prehistoric migrations across ISEA were not undertaken by mere passive sea drifters on flimsy bamboo rafts but by highly skilled navigators equipped with the knowledge and technology to travel vast distances and to remote islands over deep waters.
Several years of fieldwork on Ilin Island, Occidental Mindoro, inspired the researchers to think of this topic and to test this hypothesis. Together with naval architects from the University of Cebu, they recently started the First Long-Distance Open-Sea Watercrafts (FLOW) Project with the aim of testing raw materials that were probably used in the past, and to design and test scaled-down seacraft models.
The presence of such advanced maritime technology in prehistoric ISEA highlights the ingenuity of early Philippine peoples and their neighbors, whose boat-building knowledge likely made the region a center for technological innovations tens of thousands of years ago and laid the foundations for the maritime traditions that still thrive in the region today.
More information: Riczar Fuentes et al, Testing the waters: Plant working and seafaring in Pleistocene Wallacea, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2025). 

Journal information: Journal of Archaeological Science 

by Guillermo Carvajal
​LBV magazine
May 8, 2024

An international team of researchers has uncovered significant findings in the tomb of Thutmose III in the Valley of the Kings, Egypt. The study, which began in 2018, represents an unprecedented effort to analyze the ancient wall paintings with modern technology, leading to revelations about the techniques and materials used by ancient Egyptian artists. The results have wide-reaching implications for our understanding of Egyptian art and its cultural connections.
The project is a joint venture between the European Center for Archaeometry (CEA) at the University of Liège, the Laboratory of Molecular and Structural Archaeology (LAMS) at the University of Paris-Sorbonne, and the Center for Studies and Documentation of Ancient Egypt (CEDAE) under the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). By utilizing a portable laboratory, the team was able to conduct non-invasive physical-chemical analysis in situ, avoiding damage to the fragile wall paintings.
The researchers employed a rigorous and systematic approach, contrasting with previous methods that were often limited to isolated analyses. This comprehensive study aimed to understand not only the pigments and binders used but also the broader cultural context and artistic techniques. David Strivay, a researcher at the University of Liège, explained, With these analyses, we hope to understand the choice and application of the pigments and binders used in these mural paintings, but also to establish comparisons with previous analyses and those we will conduct in the future.

The project’s first major breakthrough came with the analysis of the tomb of Thutmose III, where researchers found an unusual combination of high-quality pigments and innovative color blends. This finding challenged existing notions about ancient Egyptian art and suggested cultural exchanges with the Minoan civilization. Catherine Defeyt, a FED-tWIN researcher at the CEA, stated, The analyses carried out during the 2024 campaign revealed an unprecedented mix of colors and high-quality pigments. This observation calls into question established knowledge about Egyptian art. Philippe Martinez, an Egyptologist at the University of Paris-Sorbonne and project leader, added, The techniques used could be the result of intense cultural exchanges with the Minoan world.

The detailed study of the pigments and artistic techniques also provided insights into the symbolic significance of the colors. For example, the black lines of the oujdat eye, often used for magical and medical protection, were composed of galena, a black mineral powder also employed in ancient Egyptian makeup. This finding, along with others, indicates a complex interplay between artistic, magical, and medicinal practices in ancient Egypt.
Despite logistical difficulties due to the tomb’s location and ventilation issues, the portable laboratory played a crucial role in the project’s success. The team even created a 3D model of the tomb, offering a new perspective on its architectural design. Philippe Martinez emphasized the importance of this research in enhancing our understanding of ancient Egyptian culture, stating that these discoveries could guide future restoration efforts by the Supreme Council of Antiquities.
Given these fascinating revelations, a new research campaign is planned for late 2024 or early 2025, promising to uncover even more secrets hidden within the tombs of ancient Egypt.
SourcesUniversity of Liège

A book on Chinese history by friend of '1421', has posited that the Ming dynasty’s Treasure Fleet journeyed as far as the Americas.

"On 27 and 28 of January 2024, the South China Morning Post published the articles entitled “Did Chinese explorers from the Ming dynasty travel to the Americas decades before Columbus?” and “Did Chinese Explorers land on Australia’s shores almost 200 years before Europeans?” on the findings which Dr Sheng-Wei Wang found in her new book, Chinese Global Exploration in the Pre-Columbian Era: Evidence from an Ancient World Map, called Kunyu Wanguo Quantu 《坤輿萬國全 圖/坤舆万国全图》.

This is a milestone in achievement for a major newspaper with a wide audience to feature Dr Wang’s work and the field of pre-Columbian Chinese voyages.
This is part of the process of decolonising our history and perceptions to open our minds to the possibility for non-European achievement. It is just as important to tell the story that has been forgotten as the story said a thousand times over, because it is still as much a part of our shared human history as any other event. For as long as we deny this truth in the face of a wave of compelling evidence, we deny ourselves our true heritage as human beings."
Dr Wang and her team invite you to see the South China Morning Post articles here on the Americas and here on Australia. Happy reading!

For further details visit her website.

​

Is this "the most complete ancient vessel found in the Mediterranean Sea?"

The much-anticipated start of the extraction of the Phoenician shipwreck located in Mazarrón, Murcia, named Mazarrón 2—currently the most complete ancient ship found in the Mediterranean—has begun with a series of new discoveries that are expanding the horizons of archaeological knowledge regarding maritime trade in antiquity.
A specialized team from the University of Valencia (UV), under the direction of lead researcher Agustín Diez Castillo and with the collaboration of Carlos de Juan, director of the extraction, has launched an ambitious operation to recover the remains of the ancient shipwreck. The intervention not only promises to recover valuable archaeological pieces, but it is also revealing unexpected materials that had remained hidden under the sediments of the Mediterranean Sea until now.
The team consists of a dozen experts, including three students from the UV’s Master’s Degree in Archaeology, specialized restorers, six professional divers trained in underwater archaeology, and an expert in documentation and communication from the University of Alicante. Additionally, part of this same team has participated in previous successful projects, such as the renowned ‘El Sec’ underwater project in Mallorca, which has provided the group with solid experience in handling submerged archaeological materials.

To ensure the safety of both the artifacts and the team, a buoy barrier has been implemented at the base camp to mark the work area and restrict access to onlookers. This is crucial because the recovered pieces are extremely fragile due to their prolonged exposure to the marine environment. During the first weeks of September, coinciding with the tourist season, security measures were significantly intensified to prevent any incidents.

To facilitate the work, the Ministry of Culture has provided a platform equipped with advanced systems, such as air compressors and water pumps that allow sediment suction underwater, as well as weights to ensure divers can work efficiently at the correct depth.
One of the most significant technical innovations of this project has been the creation of 3D models of the 22 main pieces of the wreck, representing a major advance in the planning and execution of the extraction. This allows the team to anticipate any challenges and design safer solutions for handling the most fragile objects.
To complement this approach, polyethylene resin molds have been made to ensure the protection of the pieces during their extraction and subsequent transfer to conservation labs. Several cutting-edge technology companies from the Valencian Community have collaborated on the development of these models, providing the project with the most advanced technology in the field of archaeology.
Although the area has been previously excavated, the team has found materials that had not been documented before, which has been a pleasant surprise for the researchers. Among the most notable discoveries are fragments of ropes and ceramic pieces that had been buried under layers of sediment.
The preservation of such delicate objects is a unique opportunity for scholars, as they will offer new insights into trade practices and life aboard this type of vessel in antiquity. According to the experts, the condition of some of these materials is exceptional, allowing for in-depth studies of the navigation and trade techniques of the ancient Phoenicians.
According to Carlos de Juan’s estimates, it is expected that the extraction of all materials can be completed by November 6, although the work schedule may vary depending on maritime conditions, which could delay operations. Once this phase is completed, the recovered objects will be transferred to the ARQUAtec laboratory of the Ministry of Culture, where the conservation process will begin—a delicate and meticulous process that could take several years.
It is estimated that at least five years of intensive treatment will be needed for the ship and associated materials to be ready for public display, as the treatment of the wood, which has been submerged for centuries, requires gradual impregnation to prevent deterioration once out of the water.
The start of this project has been made possible thanks to the close collaboration between various institutions, including the Region of Murcia, the University of Valencia, and the Ministry of Culture, whose coordination has been essential in facing the many challenges posed by an operation of this magnitude and complexity. Both Agustín Diez and Carlos de Juan have emphasized that the success of the project lies in inter-institutional collaboration, a model of cooperation that will undoubtedly set a milestone in the field of underwater archaeology in Spain.

SOURCESUniversitat de València

Eli Wizevich
History Correspondent
June 12, 2024

Archaeologists on the Greek island of Crete have uncovered a monumental ancient structure that threatens to halt progress on the construction of a new airport.

The structure belonged to the Minoan civilization and was mainly used between 2000 and 1700 B.C.E., around the same time that Crete’s monumental palaces at Knossos and Phaistos were built, writes Nicholas Paphitis for the Associated Press.

But unlike these palaces and other feats of Minoan architecture, the purpose of the building remains unknown, and it’s now the subject of much archaeological attention and speculation.

According to a statement from the Greek Ministry of Culture, some of the 157-foot-diameter structure’s features are comparable to Minoan tombs, including its circular arrangement of stone rings and its intricate layout. But a large quantity of ancient animal bones found nearby is complicating researchers’ understanding of the site.

“It may have been periodically used for possibly ritual ceremonies involving consumption of food, wine and perhaps offerings,” says the statement, per a translation by the AP.

While archaeologists further excavate and study the building, which sits on top of Papoura Hill, near the town of Kastelli, they must contend with the hilltop’s future function: a planned radar station for Crete’s new international airport.

Beginning in 2027, the airport will serve Heraklion, Crete’s capital and largest city, as well as a wealth of cultural and archaeological sites across the island.

Eighteen million passengers are projected to use the airport annually once construction is complete, the AP reports. Tourists want to visit Crete’s well-preserved historical sites, but they need convenient, modern infrastructure to take them there.

At times, rampant tourism has threatened the integrity of ancient sites in Greece, prompting the government to take protective measures, like limiting the number of visitors to the Acropolis in Athens.

Per the statement, excavations in the area uncovered at least 35 other archaeological sites. As Greek authorities build Crete’s new airport and the network of roads needed to connect it with the rest of the island, they must continually strike a balance between innovation and maintaining cultural heritage.

In the statement, Culture Minister Lina Mendoni describes the structure as a unique find of great interest. She says the Greek government and airport officials will explore alternative locations for the radar station to ensure the preservation of this historically significant archaeological site.
​
“It’s possible to go ahead with the airport while granting the antiquities the protection they merit,” Mendoni adds, per the AP. Her comments offer hope that Crete’s past, present and future will once again be reconciled.

The Great Zaire (Congo) River Expedition 50th Anniversary
An evening of celebration to mark the 50th Anniversary of the SES and John Blashford-Snell's Zaire (now Congo) River Expedition 1974

Date and Time: Tue, 12 Nov 2024 18:30 - 21:00 GMT
Location: The Royal Geographical Society (with IBG)
1 Kensington Gore London SW7 2AR United Kingdom